Black Stork  (Ciconia nigra)

Regional Status

IUCN Data (Global)

IUCN 2024. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2024-1 (www)

Assessment year: 2021

Assessment Citation

BirdLife International 2021. Ciconia nigra (Europe assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T22697669A166325281. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22697669A166325281.en. Accessed on 21 November 2024.

Geographic range:

In Europe, the species largest populations breed in Romania and Poland, with significant numbers also in Belarus, Turkey, Ukraine, Germany and Bulgaria.

Habitats:

The species inhabits old, undisturbed, open forests from sea-level up to mountainous regions (e.g. 2,000–2,500 m in altitude) (Snow and Perrins 1998, Billerman et al. 2020, Hancock et al. 1992). It forages in shallow streams, pools, marshes, swampy patches, damp meadows, flood-plains, pools in dry riverbeds and occasionally grasslands especially where there are stands of reeds or long grass (Hockey et al. 2005, Hancock et al. 1992, Snow and Perrins 1998, Billerman et al. 2020, Brown et al. 1982). It generally avoids large bodies of water and dense forest, but non-breeding birds may frequent the estuaries of tidal rivers (Billerman et al. 2020, Hancock et al. 1992).

The species is a solitary nester, the timing of breeding varying between populations but generally coinciding with spring in the Palearctic Region (Billerman et al. 2020). The nest is a large construction of sticks positioned between 4–25 m high in large forest trees or on cliffs (Spain) (Lohmus and Sellis 2003, Hancock et al. 1992, Billerman et al. 2020). The species shows a preference for nesting in trees that have canopies large enough to hold the nest away from the main trunk (e.g. trees 25 m high, 120 years old and with a diameter at breast height of 66 cm) (Lohmus and Sellis 2003). It nests solitarily, with pairs spread out in the landscape at a distance of no less than one kilometre (even where the species is most numerous) (Hancock et al. 1992). The species may occupy the nests of other bird species and commonly reuses nests in successive years (Billerman et al. 2020).

It is predominantly piscivorous, although it may also take amphibians, insects, snails, crabs, small reptiles, mammals and birds.

Most populations of this species are fully migratory and travel on a narrow front along well-defined routes (Billerman et al. 2020, Brown et al. 1982, Hancock et al. 1992). Some breeding populations (e.g. in Spain) are also sedentary (Billerman et al. 2020). On migration the species may travel singly or in small groups of up to 100 individuals, and on its wintering grounds it is normally observed singly or in small groups of fewer than 30 individuals (Snow and Perrins 1998, Brown et al. 1982).

Although the generation length for both EU and Europe regional assessments were calculated using the same methodology, new information arriving after the EU assessments were undertaken gave rise to an update in the generation lengths. This new information was then used for the Europe level assessments giving rise to a difference between the generation lengths used for the EU and Europe regions.

Population:

The European breeding population is estimated at 10,100–16,200 pairs (20,200–32,400 mature individuals). The breeding population in the EU28 is estimated at 6,600–10,400 pairs (13,300–20,700 mature individuals). For details of national estimates, see the Supplementary Information.

Threats:

The main threat to this species is habitat degradation (Hancock et al. 1992, Balian et al. 2002, Lohmus and Sellis 2003, Diagana et al. 2006, Billerman et al. 2020). The area of suitable habitat available for breeding is being reduced in Russia and eastern Europe through deforestation (particularly the destruction of large traditional nesting trees), the rapid development of industry and farming, the building of dams and lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Hancock et al. 1992, Lohmus and Sellis 2003, Diagana et al. 2006, Billerman et al. 2020, Balian et al. 2002).

The species' wetland wintering habitats in Africa are further threatened by conversion, agricultural intensification, desertification and pollution caused by the concentration of pesticides and other chemicals. The species is also occasionally killed by collisions with power-lines and overhead cables, and hunting in southern Europe (especially during migration) has caused population declines (Hancock et al. 1992, Diagana et al. 2006, Hockey et al. 2005).

Conservation measures:

Conservation Actions Underway
The species is listed on Annex I of the EU Birds Directive, Annex II of the Bern Convention, Annex II of the Convention on Migratory Species, under which it is covered by the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) and on Annex II of the Cites Convention. Wetlands International has published a Conservation Action Plan for the species in Africa, focusing on the wintering conditions of the birds breeding in Europe (Diagana et al. 2006).

Conservation Actions Proposed
A study in Estonia found that the retention of large older trees during forest management is important in providing nesting sites for the species (Lohmus and Sellis 2003). Conservation measures aimed at increasing the species' breeding success and population density should cover large territories of predominantly deciduous woodland and should focus on managing the river quality as far as 20 km away from nesting sites, protecting and managing feeding habitats, and improving food resources by establishing shallow artificial pools in grasslands or along rivers (Jiguet and Villarubias 2004). Other measures should: Monitor breeding, migrating, wintering numbers, age composition and ecological changes at key sites; Sustainably manage rivers and small streams; Establish non-intrusion zones around nest locations; Protect nesting trees (also in plantations) and rocks; Bury power-lines or replace with more visible cable; Prevent poaching and overexploitation of fish.

Rationale:

European regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)
EU28 regional assessment: Least Concern (LC)

In Europe, this species has an extremely large range (its extent of occurrence (EOO) is much larger than 20,000 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is much larger than 2,000 km²), and hence it does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criteria (criteria B and D2). The population size is moderately small, but not enough to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criteria (criteria C and D). The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size reduction criterion (criterion A). The probability of extinction has not been calculated for this species, therefore criterion E cannot be applied. For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in Europe.

In the EU28, this species has an extremely large range (its extent of occurrence (EOO) is much larger than 20,000 km² and its area of occupancy (AOO) is much larger than 2,000 km²), and hence it does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criteria (criteria B and D2). The population size is moderately small, but not enough to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criteria (criteria C and D). The population trend is estimated to be increasing, hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size reduction criterion (criterion A). The probability of extinction has not been calculated for this species, therefore criterion E cannot be applied. For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern in the EU28.

Trend justification:

In Europe the breeding population size is unknown. In the EU28 the breeding population size is estimated to be increasing. For details of national estimates, see the supplementary information.